Review of The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt by Toby Wilkinson

Introduction

Ancient Egyptian civilization has always been of great interest not only to historians and archaeologists but also to the general public at large. It fascinates us with its luxurious artefacts, intrigues us with its hidden tombs, and allures us with its sophisticated hieroglyphic writings. The book The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt is about aspects of Ancient Egypt that led to its prosperity and also about the causes of its fall. The book was written by an acknowledged specialist in Ancient Egyptian culture, Toby Wilkinson, and was published in New York by Random House Publishing Group in 2010.

The book covers a time frame of Egyptian history from 3000 BC and the emergence of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Ptolemaic Era (30 BC) and depicts the rule of 31 dynasties of Egyptian kings. The book consists of an introduction, five parts, and an epilogue, which cover the periods of the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, Libyan, Assyrian, and Persian invasions, the rule of Alexander the Great, and the Ptolemaic dynasty. The book ends at the point when Rome conquers Egypt, which is considered the end of Ancient Egyptian history.

The book by Toby Wilkinson is written in the form of a narrative with detailed descriptions and precise dates of events. The author sometimes becomes emotional when describing artefacts to invigorate the story and brighten a reader’s imagination. Hence, he uses many descriptive adjectives and alternates the narration of the story between the first and third person. Wilkinson also incorporates historical names close to their original pronunciation, maps, other illustrations, and charts. This gives the story a sense of authenticity.

The book starts with an introduction depicting the story of the excavation of Tutankhamun’s tomb by the famous English Egyptologist Howard Carter and his companions. In November 1922, they made, as Wilkinson puts it, “the greatest archeological discovery the world had ever seen.” The reason the author starts with this story is to show how this discovery influenced him as a young boy and enhanced his admiration for Ancient Egyptian civilization. However, as he continued to study the subject, he discovered that there was another side to the beauty and mystique of Egypt. This other side involved “political propaganda, an ideology of xenophobia, close surveillance of the population, and brutal repression of dissent.” Thus, the aim of the book is to provide a well-rounded understanding of life in Ancient Egypt, showing the despotism and brutality of authority in addition to the marvels of the ancient world. In the introduction, the author also implies that methods that pharaohs used to gain the obedience of their population, such as despotism, brutality, and summary executions, can still be and are used today to control and subjugate people. Thus, everybody can find lessons for themselves in this book.

Part I

Part I of the book illustrates the principles of the Old Kingdom (2575 BC–2125 BC), how it emerged, rose, and consequently came to an end, as did all Egyptian dynasties. However, the author starts well before the first king of the First Dynasty. He explains the geographical conditions that made the appearance of civilization possible and the circumstances surrounding the unification of Egypt into a monarchy under one king, Narmer. With the unification of different cities, Tjeni, Nubt, and Nekhen, appeared the world’s first country with a single monarch. This fact alone shows that Egyptian civilization was much more complex and developed than we might imagine.

This period is also called the Pyramid Era, as it was the time when grandiose architecture became a symbol of the king’s power and divinity. Some of the most well-known architectural structures appeared during this time. These include the Pyramids of the Giza Plateau, the Great Sphinx, and other sun temples that often shape the general public’s image of Ancient Egypt.

This magnificent architecture was an expression of Egyptian traditions and their perception of the world. The defining principle of this period was the belief that the pharaoh was the son of a god and, thus, his power was divine and his rule was unconditional. During this era, the authorities stimulated this belief so vigorously that it was not doubted by the population of Egypt for another three thousand years. Thus, the political and religious branches of power were interdependent and basically inseparable. The principle of the divine nature of the pharaoh was expressed not only in architecture but in other arts as well, including literature, sculpture, painting, theatrical life, etc. Kings of that period were obsessed with demonstrating their divine nature. That is why numerous royal ceremonies were held with lavishness and luxury.

As the main goal of the book is to show both sides of Ancient Egypt, the author describes the means of ruling during the Old Kingdom. The easiest way to subject the population was to make them fear the king. That is why the rule of ancient Egyptian kings was greatly characterized by disregard for human life, enslavement, and exploitation of the native population. The rulers tried to demonstrate their difference from the common population and thought little about the lives of ordinary people. Moreover, the lives of those in positions of authority were also fearful. When authoritative men died, their families and servants were buried with them regardless of age in order to accompany and serve them in the afterlife. These burials are also evidence of a greatly hierarchical society.

The unquestioned power of a ruler and his officials still had to be implemented through administrative actions. Egypt was characterized by a command economy and a system of taxation, which was made possible by the invention of hieroglyphic writing. Although the country constantly enriched itself through extensive international trade and conquests, the gap between the rich and poor was enormous.

The transition from the Second to the Third Dynasty was marked by the reunification of Egypt under strong rule after its weakening under the kings of the Second Dynasty. This was also a transition from the prehistoric times of Egypt to the quintessence of pharaonic civilization. The first Step Pyramid, designed by Imhotep, was built to glorify the first king of the Third Dynasty, Netjerikhet.

It was during the Fourth Dynasty, however, that the power of the monarch became absolute. “The Great Pyramid at Giza marks the zenith not just of ancient Egyptian kingship but of the universal tendency for absolute power to project itself in grandiose architecture.” The other side of this power was naturally the poor conditions of the workers who built the pyramid, as well as those of the nearby population, who sent their cattle and crops to feed royal representatives.

Part I ends with the death of the last king of the Old Kingdom, Pepi II, who outlived all his heirs and destabilized both the economic and political situation in the country.

Part II

Part II traces the six centuries between the end of the Old Kingdom and the beginning of the New Kingdom, including the Middle Kingdom. This was a golden age for Egypt, when it stepped forward onto the international stage by conquering its enemies and enhancing its trade ties with friendly states. It was also a time of thriving art, especially writing, which allowed for the appearance of the Tale of Sinuhe, Prophecies of Neferti, Satire of the Trades, and many others. Writing was also used in the Old Kingdom, but it was during the Middle Kingdom that it was used not only for administrative purposes but also as a means of telling stories.

The beginning of the Middle Kingdom was marked by a succession of kings who did not stay on the throne for more than one or two years. This stopped with the rule of the Heracleopolitan dynasty, which held the throne for about a century and a half. However, its reign was characterized by neglect of basic administrative duties, which led to interruptions in trade and famine throughout the country.

As there was nobody to govern the country effectively, provincial leaders emerged as a new political power. The strongest of them was the southern province of Thebes and its Theban dynasty. The young and ambitious ruler of the Theban province, Mentuhotep II, aimed to defeat the Heracleopolitan dynasty and unify Egypt under one ruler again. A civil war started. The ruler of Heracleopolis was defeated, and a new period of reform and stability began. Thebes became the capital city of the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom.

Mentuhotep II started his rule with the restoration of belief in the divine nature of the pharaoh. He also introduced a belief in a glorious death for everybody and reincarnation in another life. Egyptians became obsessed with the notion of death. During the Middle Kingdom, they tried to immortalize everything, from the mummified bodies of rulers to history itself through writing. During this time, monarchs turned away from building pyramids and toward creating hidden but still luxurious tombs, which made it more difficult for robbers to find them and steal from them. Osiris, the god of death, became one of the main gods in the Egyptian pantheon, and many temples were built in his honor.

Under the reign of the Twelfth Dynasty, building on the work started by Mentuhotep, Egypt regained its previous power. A number of administrative reforms that led to the stabilization of the economic situation were implemented.

The first attempts to colonize Nubia also occurred during this period. It was a strategically important region for Egypt’s trade with sub-Saharan populations. Apart from gold, ivory, and other luxuries, Egypt also used Nubia as a source of slaves.

During the Second Intermediate Period, an unprecedented event in the history of Egypt occurred. As Egypt had always been the conqueror of neighboring countries, it had never considered the possibility of being conquered on its own territory. However, after the division of the Lower and Upper Kingdoms, the former was invaded by the Western Asian army of the Hyksos. As Egypt was relatively isolated by its geographical conditions and foreign policy, its army was not ready for the invasion. The Hyksos easily conquered the territory of the Nile Delta but were pushed out of Upper Egypt. The Hyksos ruled for about a century in Egypt and greatly assimilated into Egyptian culture. They learned hieroglyphic writing and started worshipping Egyptian gods. This shows that Egyptian culture was much more developed than that of the conquerors. However, the Egyptians learned from the Hyksos as well, particularly how to prepare their army and improve ammunition and weapons in order to push the Hyksos out of Lower Egypt.

Part III

Part III of the book starts with the preparations of the ruling dynasty of Upper Egypt to form an army capable of reconquering Lower Egypt and pushing the enemy out of the country. The plan was successfully implemented by King Kamose and his successor Ahmose. Ahmose once again became the king of the two kingdoms and united the whole country under his monarchical rule. However, the population of Egypt did not necessarily see it that way. The Hyksos had been collaborative, non-despotic rulers and had a quite advanced military. The return of pharaonic civilization would mean a return to the absolute power of the monarch, with the rest of the population serving him unconditionally. That is why a number of rebellions started in Upper Egypt. Over time, all of them were defeated.

After the death of Ahmose, Egypt was not the same anymore. It was as powerful as it had been during its strongest periods, and the monarch was once again at the center of the Egyptian religious cult. Ahmose’s son, Amenhotep I, became the first king of the New Kingdom.

The New Kingdom was greatly characterized by a return to the principles and beliefs of the Old Kingdom. The nature of the monarch was divine, as “temple and palace were in ancient Egypt the two institutions [that] were inextricably intertwined and mutually reinforcing.” Egypt returned to its pantheon of gods, and many temples were built during this time. Priests were respected and seen as helpers of the pharaoh. Pyramids had proved not to be good places in which to bury pharaohs because they indicated their exact locations, making it easy for robbers to steal the goods buried with them. However, Egypt still preserved its obsession with grandiose architecture. Architecture shifted from pyramids to temples. The New Kingdom was the time when great temples such as Karnak and Luxor were built. In contrast, the burials of kings were carefully camouflaged in order to protect them from thieves. The royal burials of that period were made in the Valley of the Kings.

During the New Kingdom, the pharaohs tried to secure the borders of the country by conquering neighboring states and using them as buffer zones between Egypt and powerful tribes in Asia. King Thutmose I conquered a large part of Nubia and reached Syria and the Euphrates in the north. Thutmose’s son married his half-sister Hatshepsut, which was a common practice in Ancient Egypt. After the death of her husband, Hatshepsut was appointed regent for her young stepson. A female regent was not unusual for Egyptians, as many rulers died before their heirs came of age. However, what was different about Hatshepsut was that she proclaimed herself pharaoh. She used to wear men’s attire and a false beard. The reign of the female king was successful and stable. As she was not a warrior, she devoted her resources to art and trade.

After her death, the rightful heir to the throne, Thutmose III, regained his power. It was a time when the territories conquered by Thutmose I had started to slip out of the control of the new empire. Thus, the new pharaoh assembled an army and headed to Megiddo, whose king refused to pay taxes to Egypt. The Battle of Megiddo was one of the first battles to be documented. It was a turning point for Thutmose, after which he managed to regain control over the whole territory. Egypt was the greatest colonizing empire of that time.

In 1379 BC, Amenhotep IV came to the throne and introduced major religious changes. He proclaimed that there was only one god and promoted the worship of a single deity. A form of monotheistic belief was introduced to Egypt. During his reign, new techniques in art were also introduced, known as Amarna art, which depicted the pharaoh and his family in their everyday lives rather than only in battles or on the throne. After Amenhotep’s death, his successor took the throne and restored the old religion of many gods and goddesses. Tutankhamun did not live for long, and, having no children, his wife Ankhesenamun was among the last descendants of the dynasty.

Part IV

Part IV of the book is called “Military Might” and depicts the Ramesside Period. As can be seen from the name, “one institution dominates the story of Ramesside Egypt: the army.” This time in Egyptian history is called the Ramesside Period because a number of pharaohs in succession were called Ramesses. They were warrior kings who tried to restore the might of the Egyptian Empire by ensuring the security of its northern border with Asia.

The most famous king of the Nineteenth Dynasty was Ramesses II, who ruled for 66 years. He is known for his military campaigns and victories. He built a new capital in the north called Pi-Ramesses. In pursuit of his ambitions, his army reached Syria and fought the Hittites. The most famous battle, and probably one of the largest military battles of that time, was the Battle of Kadesh. Although Ramesses II claimed victory, it was not clear who had won, as neither side gained new territory and both armies lost many warriors. One result of this battle was one of the earliest known peace treaties in history. The Hittite king and Ramesses agreed to support each other against common threats. Ramesses was also to marry a Hittite princess. Ramesses II continued the tradition of building great architectural complexes. One of the most famous monuments associated with his reign is Abu Simbel, a temple complex carved into rock cliffs in Nubia.

Ramesses’ successors faced another threat from the north, not from the Hittites, with whom peace had been established, but from the so-called Sea Peoples. The origin of these people is not clear. Most likely, they were migrants or refugees looking for a new place to settle. Ramesses III defeated the Sea Peoples; however, Egypt's control over Libya and Nubia, which provided many resources for the kingdom, came under increasing pressure.

After Ramesses III, the fragmentation of Egypt started as a result of “a loss of royal prestige, spiraling food prices, strikes, uncontrolled immigration, widespread corruption, a breakdown in law and order.”

Part V

Part V, which is the last part of the book, concentrates on the history of Egypt in the first millennium BC, which was characterized by the decentralization of power, weakening military might, and numerous conquests by more powerful neighbors.

The invasions included those by peoples and powers that had once been within Egypt's sphere of influence. As the traditions of Egypt and Libya had become intertwined due to a long period of interaction, Libyans understood Egyptian culture. However, the Libyan dynasties could not hold the country together, as many regions became independent. One such territory was Kush. The Kushite dynasty ruled Egypt from approximately 730 BC until 663 BC, when the Assyrians invaded Egypt. In the following centuries, Persia conquered Egypt, followed later by Greek and Roman domination. The long rule of the once-thriving Egyptian empire was coming to an end.

In 332 BC, Alexander the Great arrived with his army. He was welcomed as a liberator from the Persian conquerors. As Alexander was a smart ruler, he knew that he had to gain the support of the people. He had Egyptian priests crown him as pharaoh and made a pilgrimage to the oracle of Siwa. Alexander the Great also founded the great city of Alexandria, which would become Egypt’s new capital.

After his death, his general Ptolemy became the ruler of Egypt and started the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Ptolemy again saw Egypt as a great independent empire with secure borders. That is why much of his reign was spent in conflicts against foreign states. However, the rulers of this dynasty favored priests and respected Egyptian traditions in order to receive support and attain the status of pharaoh. The last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty was Cleopatra, who had to face the Roman Empire’s growing involvement in Egyptian affairs when she was still young. She tried to protect Egypt from foreign domination not only through military means but also through diplomacy and political alliances. Ultimately, she failed and committed suicide. As the author puts it, “Suicide must have seemed a better ending than being lynched or than living the rest of her life in captivity.” With Cleopatra’s death, Egypt fell under Roman rule for the centuries that followed.

There is also an epilogue in the book in which the author speculates about the fate of Ancient Egypt after the end of pharaonic civilization. He stresses the influence that Egyptian culture had on Western civilization, including Great Britain and other parts of the world. The author also claims that Egyptian culture still allures people with its exoticism and uniqueness and, thus, that the main principle of Egyptian religion, eternity, still characterizes pharaonic civilization.

Conclusion

Toby Wilkinson’s The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt contains a vivid description of Ancient Egypt’s history and culture, dating from 3000 BC to 30 BC. However, it is not a conventional history book on Egyptology. The narration is very cohesive, and history organically intermingles with culture. The description of historical events is supported by artefacts that archaeologists have discovered. The cultural values, techniques, and styles of these artefacts are also discussed, which expands the book’s focus from bare historical facts to the cultural aspects of particular periods. For that reason, the author incorporated a section with illustrations at the end of the book.

The author also shows the dark side of pharaonic civilization, which is characterized by the devaluation of human life, despotism, and exploitation. All this provides a more balanced understanding of what life was like for upper- and lower-class Ancient Egyptians and how they perceived the world in general and their role in it in particular.

The book would be of great interest to Egyptologists, archaeologists, and other historians, as it depicts events and personalities in great detail and with precision. It would also be of value to artists who are interested in the history of art and the role of Egyptian art in the development of Western culture. The general reader will also find the book interesting and exciting, as it does not simply comprise historical events and their descriptions but shows all the might and grandiosity of the enduring pharaonic civilization.