Beowulf

Beowulf is the longest epic poem in Old English, the language spoken in Anglo-Saxon England before the Norman Conquest. Spanning over 3,000 lines, it follows the journey of its heroic main character as he faces three fierce opponents: the monstrous Grendel, Grendel’s vengeful mother, and a dragon guarding a hidden treasure.

How old is the manuscript?

Only one medieval manuscript of Beowulf has been preserved. Since there is no recorded date, scholars analyze the handwriting of the scribes to estimate its age. Some believe it was written in the late 10th century, while others argue it dates to the early 11th century, possibly during the reign of King Cnut, who ruled England from 1016 to 1035.

The most widely accepted view is that the manuscript was copied in the early 11th century, making it about 1,000 years old.

The exact date when the poem was originally composed remains unknown.

The contents of the manuscript

In addition to Beowulf, the manuscript contains several other medieval texts. These include a homily on St. Christopher, The Marvels of the East (also known as The Wonders of the East), which features illustrations of fantastical beasts and unusual creatures, The Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, and an incomplete copy of another Old English poem, Judith.

Beowulf appears as the second-to-last piece in this collection. The entire manuscript was transcribed by two Anglo-Saxon scribes who collaborated to complete the work.

Who owned the Beowulf manuscript?

The earliest recorded owner of Beowulf was Laurence Nowell, an early scholar of Old English who passed away around 1570. He inscribed his name and the date 1563 at the top of the manuscript’s first page. Later, it became part of the well-known collection of Sir Robert Cotton, who died in 1631. Cotton also owned the Lindisfarne Gospels and two copies of Magna Carta, both now housed in the British Library.

After his death, the manuscript was inherited by his son, Sir Thomas Cotton (died 1662), and later by his grandson, Sir John Cotton (died 1702), who eventually gifted it to the nation.

The Cotton Library became one of the British Museum’s founding collections in 1753 and was later incorporated into the British Library in 1973.

Why is the manuscript damaged?

In the 18th century, the Cotton manuscripts were moved to Ashburnham House in Westminster for protection. However, on the night of October 23, 1731, a fire broke out, severely damaging many manuscripts, with some completely destroyed.

Beowulf survived with minimal fire damage, but in the years that followed, frequent handling caused further deterioration. Letters crumbled from the edges of its pages, leading to additional loss. To help preserve it, the manuscript was placed in paper frames in 1845. Despite these precautions, it remains highly fragile and must be handled with extreme care.

View the full set of images in the Beowulf Digitised Manuscript or explore Electronic Beowulf, a collaborative project between the British Library and the University of Kentucky.